相关图片 [图片]#银花叶蜂 分布与危害 银花叶蜂幼虫为害叶片，初孵幼虫喜爬到嫩叶上取食，从叶的边缘向内取食，呈整齐的缺刻，全叶吃光后再转移到邻近叶片为害。发生严重时，可将全株叶片吃光，使植株不能开花，不但严重影响当年花的产量，而且使次年发叶较晚，致使受害枝条枯死。 据调查该虫仅危害金银花 形态特征 成虫：雌虫体长9-10毫米，翅展21-22毫米，雄虫体长7-8毫米，翅展18-19毫米。体蓝黑色，有金属光泽。触角黑色，3节，第3节较长，雄虫第3节的绒毛较雌虫明显。翅半透明，淡褐色，产卵器锯齿状。 卵：乳白色，肾形，长1.2-l.5毫米，宽0.7-0.8毫米。 幼虫：体长22-23毫米，头和前足呈黑色，体桃红色，背中线为一条淡绿色纵带，背侧线为金黄 色纵带，气门线淡绿色，体背有许多黑色小毛瘤；前胸有3排14个，中后胸有3排16个，腹部2-6节，有3排18个，背中央的毛瘤较大。幼虫5龄，1龄体长3.5毫米，头宽0.4毫米；2龄体长6毫米，头宽0.7毫米；3龄体长8毫米，头宽0.9毫米；4龄体长12.3毫米，头宽1.3毫米；5龄体长17.4毫米，头宽1.7毫米。蛹：黑褐色，外附长椭圆形的茧。 发生规律 银花叶蜂在四川1年发生5代，以老熟幼虫在土中结茧化蛹越冬。次年3月上旬成虫羽化，取食花蜜和蚜虫分泌的蜜露。成虫晴天活动，尤以12-15时活动最盛，飞翔力较强，可飞离地面2米，水平距离10-20米。阴雨天栖息在枝叶下不动。成虫活动3-4天后开始产卵，产卵时雌虫用锯齿状产卵器割开叶面边缘的表皮，将卵1-3粒产于表皮下。每雌虫产卵6-24粒。产卵处的叶边缘组织变成水浸状，后变为黑褐色。成虫寿命3-14天。卵期5-14天.孵化率84％。幼虫期10-19.5天。 幼虫分散危害，主要为害嫩叶，取食后幼虫头、胸、足逐渐变为黑色，体绿色，4龄后体呈桃红色。幼虫蜕皮多在早7时和傍晚。幼虫老熟后沿植株下爬，进入0.5-1厘米深的土层或枯叶中，吐丝结茧，蜷缩其中化蛹，各代蛹期为7-19.5天，越冬代蛹期185天。全年以第1和第2代为害严重，但不为害叶厚、茸毛长而硬的金银花品种。 防治方法 ①人工防治。发生数量较大时可于冬、春季在树下挖虫茧，减少越冬虫源。 ②药剂防治。尽量选择在低龄幼虫期防治。此时虫口密度小，危害小，且虫的抗药性相对较弱。防治时用45%丙溴辛硫磷（国光依它）1000倍液，或国光乙刻（20%氰戊菊酯）1500倍液+乐克（5.7%甲维盐）2000倍混合液,40%啶虫.毒（必治）1500-2000倍液喷杀幼虫，可连用1-2次，间隔7-10天。可轮换用药，以延缓抗性的产生。

相关图片 [图片]#百合蝙蝠蛾 分布与危害 又称疣纹蝙蝠蛾、柳蝙蝠蛾、东方蝙蝠蛾,属于鳞翅目,蝙蝠蛾科,蝙蝠蛾属，该虫食性较广且杂,主要分布在我国东北。寄主除有百合，还有丁香、大丽花、桃等。是一种重要害虫。 该蛾是以幼虫在茎内钻蛀为害，该蛾蛀入时先吐丝结网将虫体隐蔽,然后边蛀食边将咬下的木屑送出,粘在丝网上,最后连缀成包,将洞口掩住。造成茎叶枯黄，影响植株的生长。 形态特征 成虫 体长35-44毫米,体褐色，头部小,口器退化。触角细而短，呈丝状。翅展66-85毫米，前翅黄褐色,前缘有7个褐色斑,较明显，中央有1个深色稍带绿色的三角形斑纹,翅外侧有2条较宽的褐色斜带纹；后翅灰褐色,边缘稍黄;腹部长筒形，略短于前翅；足发达,密被褐色茸毛。 卵 长径约0.7毫米,球形,乳白至黑色。 幼虫 老熟幼虫体长约50毫米,头部红褐色,胴部污白色,圆筒形,体表有黄褐瘤突和毛片,大且明显。有腹足。 发生规律 该蛾年发生一代,通常是以卵在地面或幼虫在树干基部隧道内越冬,4月中旬在外界环境适宜时开始孵化。初龄幼虫以腐殖质为食,2、3龄后转向树根颈内蛀食, 8月下旬至9月出现成虫。化蛹前虫包囊增大,色泽变成棕褐色,先咬一圆孔,并在虫道的内口处用丝盖物堵在孔口准备化蛹。南方山区和丘陵地区为害普遍且严重，一般山脚、山谷、肥沃土壤受害重，背风处、受害较重。管理粗放的果园发生较严重。 防治方法 （1）加强果园管理，合理施肥灌水，及时清理病残物,如黄荆,野桐等寄主植物。减少虫源。 （2）保护和利用天敌,主要有食虫鸟、捕食性步甲虫和寄生蝇等。 （3）化学防治：尽量选择在低龄幼虫期防治。此时虫口密度小，危害小，且虫的抗药性相对较弱。防治时用45%丙溴辛硫磷（国光依它）1000倍液，或国光乙刻（20%氰戊菊酯）1500倍液+乐克（5.7%甲维盐）2000倍混合液,40%啶虫.毒（必治）1500-2000倍液喷杀幼虫，可连用1-2次，间隔7-10天。可轮换用药，以延缓抗性的产生。

相关图片 [图片]#唐菖蒲东方毒蛾 分布与危害 该虫主要分布在我国江苏、浙江等长江流域地区。寄主除有唐菖蒲外，还有杜鹃、月季、桂花等花卉。 该虫主要是以幼虫咬食叶片为害，除卵外，各虫态均有毒毛，皮肤接触后奇痒，发炎。 形态特征 成虫翅展30-45毫米，体黄褐色。前翅中央有1个<形斑纹。 老熟幼虫体长30-40毫米，橙黄色至黑褐色。各节具瘤突和灰褐色毛。尤其是第一、二、八腹节上的瘤突最显著。瘤突上丛生暗褐色短毛。 发生规律 该虫年生1代，以幼虫越冬，翌年4月开始取食，至6月中、下旬幼虫老熟，筑茶褐色茧，并在其中化蛹。6月下旬-8月上旬出现成虫。成虫有趋光性，交尾后产卵于叶背面。初孵幼虫群集为害，啃食叶肉，长大后分散为害。 防治方法 （1）剪除初龄幼虫群集的叶片，集中烧毁。 （2）成虫羽化盛期，根据其有趋光性，可用黑光灯进行诱杀。 （3）化学防治：尽量选择在低龄幼虫期防治。此时虫口密度小，危害小，且虫的抗药性相对较弱。防治时用45%丙溴辛硫磷（国光依它）1000倍液，或国光乙刻（20%氰戊菊酯）1500倍液+乐克（5.7%甲维盐）2000倍混合液,40%啶虫.毒（必治）1500-2000倍液喷杀幼虫，可连用1-2次，间隔7-10天。可轮换用药，以延缓抗性的产生。

相关图片 [图片]#唐菖蒲大造桥虫 分布与危害 主要分布在我国浙江、江苏、上海、山东、河北、河南、湖南、湖北、四川、广西、贵州、云南等地。除为害唐菖蒲外，还为害月季、锦葵、蔷薇、菊花、一串红、万寿菊、萱草等。 该虫主要是以幼虫蚕食叶片，造成叶片穿孔和缺刻。发生严重时，叶片被食仅留叶脉。有时花蕾、花冠也受其害。影响植株的正常开花结果。 形态特征 成虫体长15-18毫米，翅展38-40毫米，体浅灰色，触角锯齿状，每节上有灰至褐色丛毛。头部细小，复眼黑色，头、胸交界处有1列长毛。前翅灰黄色，外缘线由半月形点列组成。中室斑纹为白色，四周有黑褐色圈。 卵长椭圆，直径月0.7毫米，初产时为青绿色，上有许多小颗粒状突起，坚厚强韧。 老熟幼虫体长约38-49毫米，胸被侧面密布黄点。背线甚宽，直达尾端，亚背线黑色，气门线黄褐色。 蛹深褐色，长约14毫米，尾端尖锐。 发生规律 河北地区1年发生3代，世代重叠，以蛹在土中越冬。每年4月下旬成虫羽化，成虫有趋光性，昼伏夜出。成虫一般将卵产在叶背、枝条上、土缝间等处，卵期约7天。初孵幼虫借风吐丝扩散，行走时常曲腹如桥形，不活跃，常拟态如嫩枝条栖息。幼虫为害期在5-10月。10月老熟幼虫入土化蛹越冬。长江下游地区1年发生4-5代，高温夏季只需要40多天就可完成1代。 防治方法 （1）捕杀成虫，利用成虫飞翔力不强，可人工用捕虫网捕捉。 （2）利用成虫具有趋光性，可用黑光灯诱杀。 （3）加强栽培管理，冬季翻土，将周边杂草清除，以消灭卵块，减少虫源。 （4）保护和利用天敌，主要有追寄蝇、螳螂、胡蜂、猎蝽、益鸟等。 （5）化学防治 在低龄幼虫期，可喷雾50%丙溴辛硫磷乳油（如国光依它）1000-1500倍液，或20%氰戊菊酯乳油（如国光乙刻）2000倍液，40%啶虫毒乳油（如国光必治）1500-2000倍液进行防治，重点喷淋害虫危害部位 ，喷药时药液尽量接触虫体，连用2次，间隔5-7天。

Oedema is a physiological disorder that develops when roots take up water faster than it can be used by the plant or transpired through the leaves. Water pressure builds up in the internal cells of the leaves causing them to burst, leaving dead cells that are visible as a blister, primarily on the undersides of leaves. Oedema may also be spelled edema.[图片]Geraniums, rhododendrons, begonias, peperomias, jade plants, ficus, schefflera, and camellias are particularily sensitive to conditions that lead to the development of oedema, although almost any broadleaf plant may be affected. Symptoms and Diagnosis These blisters eventually erupt and form white, tan, or brown wart-like corky growths. As the condition worsens, leaves may turn yellow, droop, and fall off. In severely affected plants, blisters also form on the petioles and stems, although this is more rare. The upper surfaces of these leaves will often have indentations above the engorged cells on the undersides. If the problem is not corrected, the plants will become spindly.[图片]On indoor plants, oedema is most prevalent in the late winter, especially during extended periods of cloudy weather. It is likely to develop when the soil is warm and the air is cool and moist. This environment results in rapid water absorption from the soil and slow water loss from the leaves. These conditions are most frequently encountered in greenhouses or indoor situations rather than outdoors but oedema can also be common on container-grown plants.[图片]Integrated Pest Management Strategies 1. Culture. Oedema is a cultural problem so cut back on watering, but avoid letting plants dry out completely. If necessary, move the plant to a larger pot if it dries out too quickly. 2. Greenhouse conditions. When symptoms occur in a greenhouse, promote conditions that allow water loss to balance with water uptake by the roots. Decreasing humidity forces higher transpiration; ventilation is important as well as air temperature.

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The spotted wing drosophila (SWD), Drosophila suzukii, is a small fruit fly (vinegar fly) native to Japan. It was first discovered in the western United States in 2008 and has quickly moved through the Pacific Northwest into other parts of the US and northward into Canada. It has been reported in Illinois and Missouri. It is a serious pest of most berry crops, cherries, grapes and other tree fruits, with a preference for softer-fleshed fruit, such as raspberries, blackberries, strawberries and blueberries. Unlike most fruit flies it lays eggs in undamaged, healthy fruit as well as damaged or rotting fruit. (Other species lay eggs only in already-damaged and rotting fruit.) The adult flies have been transported by man far and wide.[图片]Symptoms and Diagnosis Adult male flies are only 1/16 to 1/8 inch long and have red eyes. They have two distinctive dots on the wings (females do not have the wing spots). Male flies also have two dark bands on the forelegs. On the female SWD, the large serrated ovipositor is a distinctive morphological feature, longer than other fruit and vinegar fly species and with two rows of serrations. Infested fruit do not show obvious symptoms of infestation at first with only a small pin-prick visible from egg-laying. Within a few days, however, the fruit flesh will start to break down leading to discolored regions and eventual collapse of the tissues. By this point, the white larvae, about 1/8 inch long, can be relatively easy to detect. By being able to insert eggs into healthy, undamaged fruit the larvae of SWD can be present during ripening on the plant but only detected after harvest. During egg-laying, sour rot and fungal diseases can also be introduced, further affecting fruit quality. There is a greater risk of fruit contamination at harvest from SWD compared with native species that lay eggs only in already-damaged and rotting fruit.[图片]Life Cycle Adults live about two weeks to over a month depending upon climatic conditions and can lay more than 100 eggs a day. In Missouri they will complete multiple generations a year. This demonstrates their high potential for fruit infestation and spreading if not controlled. Females cut into intact fruit using their serrated ovipositor to insert 1-2 eggs under the skin. The larvae (maggots) hatch in a few days and begin feeding. The maggots pupate either on the fruit, or fall to the ground, where they emerge as adults. A complete life cycle can take between 10-20 days. Integrated Pest Management Strategies 1. Practice strict sanitation. Collect and dispose of any and all damaged and fallen fruit. Do not compost. Place in a sealed plastic bag to prevent adults from emerging and dispose in the trash. Also, keep the surrounding area free of weed host plants, such as, wild blackberries and other plants with soft fruit that could harbor the pest. Increase air circulation around plants as SWD prefers sheltered areas with high humidity as in dense foliage cover.[图片]2. Harvest early. Harvest fruit when it first begins to turn color and allow the fruit to ripen off the plant reducing its attractiveness to the fruit fly. 3. Exclude adult flies. The use of very fine netting (less than 0.98 mm, 18 mesh or finer) applied before the fruit starts to begin to ripen can exclude the adults. Be sure and apply before the first fruit start to ripen or flies can be trapped inside the netting. Exclusion, however, can have the adverse effect of excluding pollinators from crops, such as, everbearing strawberries.[图片]4. Use insecticides. Sprays of spinosad, malathion or pyrethrins can be effective if applied early before adult females have laid eggs in the fruit. Some resistance to natural pyrethrins has been noted. Malathion is very toxic to bees and natural predators. Make sure the crop you are spraying is listed on the pesticide label and follow all directions including those for the waiting time before the crop can be harvested. SWD prefers high humidity so will be found in dense foliage areas. Good coverage is essential to be effective.

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Plum curculio, a snout beetle, is an important pest on stone fruits like plums, cherries, and peaches. Plum curculio is one of the most serious pests of peach trees; they lay eggs within the fruit and both adults and larvae feed on the fruit, causing brown rot of the fruit. On apples, plum curculio is considered the second most damaging pest after codling moth.[图片]Symptoms and Diagnosis Plum curculio beetles, Conotrachelus nenuphar, can be found on plum, cherry, peach, and apple trees, less commonly on nectarine and pear trees. Fruit may fall prematurely, in late May and June. The skin of infected fruit has small crescent-shaped blemishes that eventually become swollen and knotted. Upon closer examination, larvae may be seen feeding near the blemishes. Infested fruit is often hard and misshapen. The larvae create holes in the fruit skin when they leave the fruit to pupate. These holes are clean-cut and free of frass or webbing.[图片]Life Cycle Plum curculio beetles are dark brown, about 1/4 inch long, and have a prominent snout, measuring about 1/3 the length of their bodies. They have four characteristic humps on their wing covers. Adults may overwinter in the soil or in hedgerows near host trees. These adults emerge from their overwintering sites to feed on trees in early spring. Females lay eggs within the fruit. The larvae that emerge from the developing fruit have grayish-white, worm-like bodies with brown heads and can be seen on infested trees in late summer. Larvae may feed on the fruit for 2–3 weeks before they burrow into the ground to pupate. Adults emerge in mid- to latesummer to cause more feeding damage on mature fruit before they overwinter.[图片]Integrated Pest Management Strategies 1. Shake infested trees. In backyards with only a handful of infested trees, plum curculios may be shaken out of infested trees. This technique works best early in the day when the beetles are sluggish. Lay paper or cloth underneath the trees to collect the beetles. Destroy the collected beetles. 2. Clean up fallen fruit in which eggs or larvae may be developing. 3. Cultivate the soil surrounding infested trees in late spring or early summer to destroy pupating larvae that may have fallen to the ground with the fruit or pupae that may be developing in burrows in the ground.[图片]4. Apply insecticides when populations of adult beetles are severe. Apply carbaryl (Sevin) spray to curb feeding damage and prevent beetles from laying eggs. It is important to delay application of the pesticide until after flower petals drop to avoid harming pollinating insects. Reapply pesticides two more times, at 10–14 day intervals. Other pesticides registered for use include azadirachtin (Bio-Neem, Margosan-O), Beauvaria bassiana, malathion, and pyrethrins.

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The fall webworm, Hyphantria cunea, is a general feeder on nearly all trees except conifers. While this native North American insect attacks over 100 different tree species, it tends to prefer mulberry, walnut, hickory, elm, sweetgum, poplar, willow, oak, linden, ash, apple, and other fruit trees. The insect makes webs at branch tips and is harmful mainly to the beauty of the host. It is considered to be more of a nuisance than a threat to the health of the tree.[图片]Symptoms and Diagnosis A distinctive web of silk, containing many caterpillars, is constructed around leaves at branch ends. Each "nest" may contain hundreds of larvae that feed together for a while. By late summer, the unsightly nest may measure three feet across and, in addition to the growing larvae, contains excrement, dried leaf fragments, and cast skins. An unusual characteristic of fall webworm caterpillars is that if alarmed, all the caterpillars in a nest make jerking movements in unison. It is thought that this is a potential defensive mechanism to startle and deter predators. Another tent-forming caterpillar is the eastern tent caterpillar, Malacosoma americanum. However, eastern tent caterpillars make webbed silk nests in a fork of a branch or tree trunk and leave the nest to feed. Fall webworm caterpillars have nests at branch tips and feed inside the webbing.[图片]Life Cycle In late spring or early summer, adults emerge from overwintering pupal cases and lay hair-covered masses of several hundred eggs on the underside of leaves. The larvae that emerge can be either yellowish green with a black head or tan with a red head. Both color forms have many long, gray hairs and pairs of wart-like black spots running down their backs. Once feeding begins, the larvae congregate in masses and produce the silky web that surrounds the entire colony. Larvae feed inside the web and expand it as they grow. Larvae stay in the colony until their last molt after which they may be found crawling anywhere on the host plant. The larvae crawl to a protected place to spin a flimsy cocoon and pupate. The adults emerging from pupation have two color forms: either all white or white with black spots. There are two generations a year.[图片]Integrated Pest Management Strategies 1. Live with the problem and let nature take its course. Hosts are seldom seriously harmed because defoliation usually occurs later in summer rather than during a period of active growth and not enough terminal growth is consumed to affect tree growth. In addition, more than 75 natural enemies parasitize and prey on the fall webworm. 2. Prune out webs. Branches that have active webs ("nests") may be cut out and destroyed. Webs are always on branch ends and are easier to remove when they are small. Pole pruners are helpful for reaching into trees.[图片]3. Apply insecticidal sprays. If chemical control is truly necessary, treatment is recommended when webs first appear. This is because the smaller caterpillars are more susceptible to insecticides and, secondly, the webbed nests are somewhat waterproof and can be difficult to penetrate with sprays. The microbial insecticide Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) is available as Dipel or Thuricide and can be used on the small caterpillars. Other pesticides registered for use include acephate (Orthene), carbaryl (Sevin), pyrethrins and spinosad.

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The eastern tent caterpillar, Malacosoma americanum, is a native species that occurs throughout the eastern United States and westward to the Rocky Mountains. Before the outbreak of the gypsy moth, the eastern tent caterpillar was considered by many authorities to be the most widespread and destructive defoliating pest of deciduous trees in the eastern United States. Its favorite host trees include apple, wild cherry, and crabapple. However, the caterpillars will also attack ash, birch, maple, oak, poplar, cherry, and plum. Populations fluctuate greatly because of factors such as unfavorable weather and natural enemies.[图片]Symptoms and Diagnosis Eggs are laid in distinctive masses encircling the twigs of the host plant. The egg masses are about 3/4 of an inch long and are covered with a dark substance that makes them appear varnished. The egg mass has the consistency of styrofoam. Eggs hatch and the caterpillars gather at a nearby branch fork where they begin to build a silk webbed tent. As the caterpillars grow, they build new tents in the larger forks of trees. Webbed tents are the most obvious sign of the caterpillars. Another tent-forming caterpillar is the fall webworm, Hyphantria cunea. However, fall webworm caterpillars make webbed silk nests at the ends of branches and feed inside the nest. Eastern tent caterpillars have tents in a fork of a branch or tree trunk and they leave the nest to feed.[图片]Life Cycle Tent caterpillars overwinter as eggs in an egg mass. The eggs hatch in the spring, about the time wild cherry leaves begin to unfold. The young caterpillars quickly gather at a branch fork or crotch and begin to build a silk web. The larvae leave their tent to feed on foliage. Young caterpillars feed during the day and remain in the tent at night; older (and larger) caterpillars feed at night and remain in the tent during the day. Mature larvae can reach a length of about 2 inches. They are generally black with a white stripe down the back and have a series of blue spots between yellow lines that run lengthwise down the back. They also have long, fine hairs all over their body. This is the only common caterpillar with a white stripe down the back. At maturity, a caterpillar will leave the host tree and search for a place to spin a cocoon (fence post, tree trunks, debris on the ground, sides of buildings, etc.). Adult moths emerge in two weeks, mate, and lay eggs that overwinter. Moths have reddish-brown wings with two white diagonal stripes on each front wing. There is one generation per year with about 9 months spent in the egg stage.[图片]Integrated Pest Management Strategies 1. Live with the problem. It is not necessary to spray insecticides to control the eastern tent caterpillar. Healthy defoliated trees will grow new leaves. Infested trees can be unsightly and are less vigorous than attacked trees, but they are seldom killed. Typical natural controls include birds, predaceous and parasitic insects (especially wasps), and disease organisms. Caterpillars with white eggs or cocoons attached to their back should not be destroyed because they are being hosts for native parasites. 2. Handpick egg masses. Future damage on small trees can be reduced by locating and removing egg masses during winter because they are most obvious at that time. They can be scraped off with a thumbnail or pruned out.[图片]3. Manual removal of tents or caterpillars. Start looking for tents when service berries (Amelanchier laevis) or sugar maples (Acer saccharum) are blooming or when silver maples (Acer saccharinum) have leaves about 1 to 2 inches long. Tents can be pruned off if small, because they are usually located in small branch forks. They can also be removed by winding them around the end of a broomstick or pole that has a small brush or nails mounted on the end. It is most effective to do this at night or on cloudy, rainy days because the young caterpillars are gathered in the tent for protection and aren't venturing out to feed. Caterpillars can also be handpicked and dropped into soapy water.[图片]4. Apply insecticides. If insecticide sprays are necessary, they should be applied when the tents are first noticed. Caterpillars leave the tents to feed so thorough coverage of the foliage with the insecticidal spray will provide control. Tents are water repellent so spraying them with water based insecticides is not very effective. Insecticides that can be used include Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt, Dipel or Thuricide), carbaryl (Sevin), pyrethrins, acephate (Orthene) or spinosad.

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Steneotarsonemus pallidus, or cyclamen mites, can be major pests on strawberries. Plants they infest are chlorotic and sickly looking because mites extract chlorophyll from the plants.[图片]Symptoms and Diagnosis Yellow or white stippling appears on leaves. New growth is stunted and older growth becomes distorted and curled. Flower buds may drop. Fruit that develops from infected buds are small and dry. Whole plants may have a bronze cast.[图片]Life Cycle Mites are minute arachnids, only measuring up to 1/25 inch. Under a magnifying lens, you will find that adults are red-orange and immature stages are somewhat translucent. The distorted growth and bronze cast of the plant occur due to toxins injected by the mites. They overwinter in the crowns of strawberry plants. Mites can do serious damage to strawberry plantings because they can reproduce and spread quickly; a new generation may be produced every 14 days.[图片]Integrated Pest Management Strategies 1. Apply insecticidal soap weekly until control is achieved to rid plants of mites. Make sure to cover the undersides of leaves because that is where these pests tend to be found feeding. 2. Remove and destroy infested plants. 3. Apply insecticides. Pesticides registered for use include dicofol (Kelthane and endosulfan (Thiodan).

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