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Dummer. ゛☀
2017年09月24日
Dummer. ゛☀
How to plant and grow peonies, one of the most carefree of all perennials PEONIES are one of the best-known and most dearly loved perennials. This is hardly surprising considering their sumptuous beauty and fragrance, trouble-free nature and longevity. Peonies also thrive almost anywhere in the country. Many varieties can even survive a zone 2 winter (that's a low of -50 degrees F). If a peony is well situated and happy, it may bloom for 100 years or more with little or no attention. This means it's worth spending some time up front, choosing the right planting location and preparing the soil. That said, there are many stories about forgotten peony plants found blooming in the woods against old cellar holes. But like all plants, peonies will be healthier, more vigorous and more floriferous if they have ideal growing conditions. [图片]Peonies prefer a sunny location with well-drained soil. Good air circulation around the plant is also important. These growing conditions help peonies avoid their only serious disease problem: botrytis. Like other fungal diseases, botrytis is present in most soils. It usually only becomes a problem if the plant is weak, the weather is unusually cool and wet, or if there are other infected plants nearby. Signs of botrytis are blackened buds and stems, and sometimes rotting at the base of the plant. Cut off and dispose of any affected areas (put this material in the trash, not in your compost pile). The best strategy for botrytis problems is prevention, and that goes back to proper planting. A special note for gardeners in the warm climates: Peonies will be more robust and their blooms will last longer if the plants receive some shade during the hottest part of the day. Peonies are an iffy prospect in warm zones, and impossible in some. To find out of they can be grown in your area, check with a good gardener in the neighborhood or your cooperative extension. To prepare the planting hole for a bareroot peony, dig the soil to a depth of 12-18". Use a garden fork to loosen the sides of the planting hole as well. Add a shovelful of compost and a handful of an all-purpose, organic, granular fertilizer, to the bottom of the hole and then add a shovelful of the original soil. Build up a "cone" of this amended soil inside the planting hole and then position the peony root on top of the cone with its roots hanging down the sides. It is very important that the "eyes", or growth nodes, located near the base of the old stem, end up no more than 2" below the soil surface. If the peony root is positioned deeper than this, the plant may grow well, but it will produce few if any blooms. Container-grown plants can be planted similarly. Just dig a hole that's twice as wide as the root ball but no deeper. Amend the soil as above. When planting, make sure the soil surface in the pot is at grade when the new plant is in the ground. [图片]Peonies rarely bloom the first year after planting. It often takes three years before you see an abundant display of flowers. But once the plants do start blooming, you can look forward to a lifetime of beautiful flowers. Peony plants rarely need dividing. If a clump becomes too large for a given space, or you wish to share some of the plant with a friend, fall is the ideal time for dividing. Cut back the foliage and carefully lift the entire plant out of the ground. Use a sharp knife to cut apart some of the plant, making sure to create generous clumps of roots with at least three to five eyes per clump. Reposition the original plant back in the hole, taking care not to break off any of the relatively brittle roots or leave large pockets of air in the planting hole. Water until you are sure the moisture has reached the bottom of the hole and that the soil has settled around the roots. Plants that have been divided in the fall may not bloom the following spring, but will return to normal the next season. A yearly application of organic, all-purpose fertilizer and a top-dressing of compost is all a peony requires for good health. If you mulch your flower beds, be sure to keep the mulch away from the base your peonies. If the base is covered with mulch, the plant reacts as if it has been planted too deep, and will produce few, if any, flowers. Depending on the variety and the growing conditions, you'll probably want to provide your peonies with some support when the flowers are in bloom. This is especially true for the double or "bomb"-style blossoms, which can become waterlogged and very heavy. The supports should be positioned early in the growing season, before the plants get more than a few inches high. Once the plant has filled out, and especially when it's in bloom, it is nearly impossible to set up an effective support system. [图片]There are hundreds of peony varieties on the market today, from heirloom favorites that have been enjoyed for centuries, to exciting new colors (peach, coral, yellow), interesting flower forms (spiders, singles and semi-doubles), and different heights and bloom times. You might also want to try your hand at growing tree peonies, which bloom earlier than herbaceous peonies, have larger blossoms and can grow up to 6 feet tall. Frequently Asked Questions How come my peonies don't bloom? Failure to bloom is usually caused by two things: improper planting and/or insufficient light. When planting peonies, make sure to plant the eyes (the point at which new growth emerges) no more than two inches deep. Also make sure your plants get plenty of sun — 6 or more hours a day. If they're planted in a shady site, they will not flower well — if at all. Also note that newly planted peonies usually don't flower the first year, which is spent developing a good root system and foliage. By the second spring after planting, you should see your first blooms. What are tree peonies? Although tree peonies are related to regular (herbaceous) peonies, they are much larger, reaching up to 6 feet. Their form is actually more like a shrub than a tree. In colder zones, they will not grow as tall — 3 or 4 feet is typical. Plants bloom just before the regular peonies; flowers are equally fragrant. Can peonies be divided? Yes. Unlike most perennials, peonies rarely need to be divided. The only reason to do it is to get more plants — or share them with friends. It's best done in the fall. Dig up the clump and use a sharp tool to divide it into sections, keeping three to five eyes in each division. Be sure to water the transplants thoroughly, unless you get plenty of rainfall. Keep in mind that divisions (and transplants) might not begin blooming again for two or three years. Ants are crawling all over my peony buds. Are they going to eat the flowers? No. These insects are merely enjoying the sugary syrup produced by the buds and are doing no harm to the plant. The foliage on my peony has blackened and wilted. What can I do? Peonies suffer from very few pest and disease problems. Nevertheless, they sometimes get fungal diseases, such as botrytis blight, which you describe. Other similar problems include blackened and/or rotten stems, withered buds, gray mold near the base of the plant. In all cases, remove and destroy the infected plant parts. Make sure the plants aren't getting overwatered; avoid sites with poorly drained soil. Good air circulation around the plant will also minimize fungal problems. Powdery mildew can be a problem near the foundation of a house, where there is lots of roof runoff and splashing. Consider moving the plant to another location if you see powdery mildew every year. To prevent problems, do a thorough clean-up after fall frosts. Cut the stems to 3" from the ground and clear away the foliage. We recently moved to Florida and want to grow peonies like we did in Connecticut. Is there a way we can do it? Unfortunately, you cannot grow peonies successfully in Florida, southern California and most of the deep south. Zone 8 is the warmest zone for peonies. And if you're growing them in zone 8, it's wise to check locally to see which varieties are known to thrive. My peonies are gorgeous, but when it rains, the flowers bend to the ground. How can I prevent this? The best solution is a grow-through support, which helps keep the top-heavy blooms upright. Ring supports will also work, but they aren't quite as "invisible" as the grids. Be sure to put the grids in place in early spring — before the plants are more than a few inches tall.
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Dummer. ゛☀
2017年09月24日
Dummer. ゛☀
ONIONS, shallots and garlic are members of the allium family that belong in the vegetable garden. But there are many ornamental alliums that deserve a hearty welcome in your perennial gardens. Alliums are plants of exquisite beauty in both flower and leaf, with tough constitutions. These easy-to-grow bulbs come in a broad palette of colors, heights, bloom times and flower forms. They make excellent cut flowers for fresh or dried bouquets. Even crowded gardens can accommodate a few alliums because they don't take up much space. What's more, alliums are relatively resistant to deer, voles, chipmunks, and rabbits [图片]Ordinary Onions They're Not There are more than 700 different types of alliums in the world. It wasn't until the late 1800s that this vast group of plants started to intrigue plant lovers. Russian botanists began collecting some of the spectacular alliums from Central Asia and introducing them to avid horticulturists through the Imperial Botanical Garden in St. Petersburg. Of course, it didn't take long for the consummate plant hunters, the British, to get wind of this "new" family of garden-worthy plants. Their expeditions yielded many more interesting alliums varieties. Hardy, Easy-Care, Deer- and Rodent-Resistant Ornamental alliums are hardy to zone 4 and they have very undemanding cultural requirements. They will grow in most any soil, as long as it is well-drained. Alliums adore sunlight and will perform best when they can bask in it all day long. Since most of them multiply naturally, they can be left untouched in the same area for years. Alliums are drought-tolerant plants that actually prefer to be grown on the dry side. There are no serious diseases or insect pests that bother them. And you won't ever have to worry about rodents or deer, since they seem to have no appreciation for the taste of onions — ornamental or otherwise. Just remember, there's only one time of year you can plant alliums: in the fall. Daffodils, tulips and crocuses are easy to find at most garden centers, but alliums are not as readily available. To make sure you have the bulbs in hand when it's time to plant, the best thing to do is order them by mail. That way, they'll show up at your door at proper planting time, and there's no chance you'll have to live another year without these beautiful, long-lasting, bee-friendly flowers in your garden. Some ornamental alliums grow more like chives and what you plant is a clump of roots rather than bulbs. This type of allium is usually sold as a potted plant, and may be more available in spring than fall. [图片]Favorite Alliums There are dozens of varieties in cultivation; here are some of the best. Purple Sensation: the 2″ to 4″ diameter purple globes bloom in early June, right after the late tulips. Purple Sensation's sturdy stems rise 24″ to 30″ high, so the flowers appear to float above the foliage of newly emerging perennials./p> Globemaster and Gladiator: The tallest and most architectural alliums have huge, globe-shaped flowerheads on 3- to 4-foot stems. Bloom time is early to mid-June. A group of deep-purple Globemaster or Gladiator alliums is a real eye-catcher, especially when planted with white or pink peonies, delphiniums or tall bearded iris. The white-flowering Mount Everest is a bit shorter and looks sharp in front of shrubs with deep-green or burgundy foliage or rising out of a groundcover of periwinkle (Vinca minor). Corkscrew allium: Drought-tolerant corkscrew allium (Allium senescens ssp. montanum var. glaucum) makes a good edging plant in the dry soil at the top of my stone retaining wall. Its blue-green leaves twist like loose corkscrews. Bloom time is late summer. [图片]Ozawa allium (Allium thunbergii 'Ozawa'): A tidy, clump-forming plant that grows 18″ to 20″ high. Among the last of the perennials to bloom, its flowers often don't open until late September or October. Bees love it. Another late-bloomer that flowers in autumn. Its pink flowers pair well with coreopsis, gaillardia, solidago and other fall flowers. Schubert allium (Allium schubertii): Quite dramatic, though only 8″ tall . Its foot-wide umbels look like an exploding pink fireworks display. Sure to elicit comments from garden visitors. Seed heads add interest for a month or more after blooms fade.
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Dummer. ゛☀
2017年09月24日
Dummer. ゛☀
IMAGINE if your pots and planters always looked fabulous. "Wow!" your friends would say to one another, "How does she do it?" Gone are the days when you could feel good about just picking up a couple red geraniums and some pink wax begonias. The pressure is on. Your pots and planters need panache! So this spring, before you head out to buy plants for your porch, deck or patio, learn what it takes to create planters with style. Chances are, the gardener who planted up that beautiful pot may have shopped at the very same nursery as you. They may have traveled down the same isles and may have chosen among the same 200 kinds of plants and 10,000 possible plant combinations. The trick is all in the choosing. [图片]1. Plan the structure The structure of your container planting, that is. When you're selecting plants in 4" or 6" pots, you need to think about their eventual height, shape and growth habit. Most plants are either upright, broad or trailing. The most successful container combinations usually include at least one of each form. Start with a tall, upright plant, such as Purple Fountain Grass (Pennisetum setaceum 'Rubrum') or a fancy-leaved, dwarf canna lily. Add one or two broad, mid-height plants such as heliotrope, coleus, African daisies (osteospermum) or dwarf dahlias. Then select one or two trailing forms, such as ivy geranium, sweet potato vine, bacopa or licorice plant (Helichrysum petiolare). Of course another sure-fire way to create a strong, architectural statement is to place just one bold plant in the container. Candidates for this effect would include a thick, upright clump of bamboo or the perfect symmetry of New Zealand flax (phormium). Consider flanking an entryway with a pair of dwarf Alberta spruce or false cypress. A clump of ornamental grass, such as feather reed grass, makes a bold statement. Or you could focus all the attention on a trailing form; envision a tall, celadon-green urn filled with nothing but a burgundy-colored sweet potato vine. [图片]2. Consider the growing conditions If you fill a windowbox with shade-loving impatiens and then put it in a sunny, west-facing location, those impatiens will struggle to survive. You will also fail if you try to grow sun-loving ivy geraniums on a shady porch. Think about where the pot will be located and then select plants that will like living there. Plant labels usually list sun/shade requirements (you'll also find a few recommendations at the end of this article). It's also important to combine plants with similar moisture requirements. Desert-loving portulaca won't be happy growing in the same pot with moisture-loving hibiscus. Soil preference is also important. A pot filled with rosemary, bay and thyme should contain a sandy, sharply drained soil mix that mimics the Mediterranean conditions these plants prefer. Fuchsia, on the other hand, wants a humusy, moisture-retentive soil that's similar to what's found in a wet tropical rainforest. Plant labels (or a well-informed sales associate) can provide this information. [图片]3. Contrast textures Foliage is just as important as color in creating a successful container planting. Once you've gathered a group of candidates, think about the size of the leaves and their surface texture. Leaf textures range from waxy (ivy geraniums) to shiny (croton), to prickly (asparagus fern) or velvety (dusty miller). Contrasting foliage really grabs the eye. For an exciting texture combination, imagine a hair-like tuft of the lemon yellow grass known as ogon (Acorus gramineus), with the spiky lime-green succulent Angelina (Sedum repestre), the waxy burgundy leaves of Sedum 'Garnet Brocade', and the lacy flowers of Coral Flying Colors diascia. [图片]4. Be bold with color A well-composed container planting can be as visually stimulating as a great painting. Generate energy and excitement by combining complimentary colors such as purple and orange or yellow and blue. Or paint a more visually soothing composition by limiting yourself to related colors such as blues and pinks or reds and yellows. You can also create a stunning, very sophisticated look using nothing but greens, whites and silvers. When selecting flower and foliage colors, you may also want to think about the color of your house, the color of your deck or patio pavers, and the color in adjacent beds and borders. That said, pots and planters present a great opportunity to experiment with dramatic color combinations that you'd probably never dare to use in your permanent landscape. Creating winning plant combinations is easier than you might think. Check out the slideshow, above, for more inspiration. If you need more ideas, the Proven Winners website has photos of about 500 different plant combinations.
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Dummer. ゛☀
2017年09月24日
Dummer. ゛☀
ACCORDING to the Gallup Gardening Survey, less than half of the country's home gardeners use any kind of fertilizer on their lawns or gardens. What's unfortunate about this statistic is that it means gardeners aren't getting as many flowers or as much produce as they should. And they're probably struggling with disease and insect problems that could be avoided. Well-fed plants are healthier, more productive and more beautiful. This article covers the basics of why and how to fertilize your garden. [图片]Plant Nutrients 101 Plants need to be fertilized because most soil does not provide the essential nutrients required for optimum growth. Even if you are lucky enough to start with great garden soil, as your plants grow, they absorb nutrients and leave the soil less fertile. Remember those tasty tomatoes and beautiful roses you grew last year? It took nutrients from the soil to build those plant tissues. By fertilizing your garden, you replenish lost nutrients and ensure that this year's plants have the food they need to flourish. There are six primary nutrients that plants require. Plants get the first three—carbon, hydrogen and oxygen—from air and water. The other three are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Nitrogen helps plants make the proteins they need to produce new tissues. In nature, nitrogen is often in short supply so plants have evolved to take up as much nitrogen as possible, even if it means not taking up other necessary elements. If too much nitrogen is available, the plant may grow abundant foliage but not produce fruit or flowers. Growth may actually be stunted because the plant isn't absorbing enough of the other elements it needs. Phosphorus stimulates root growth, helps the plant set buds and flowers, improves vitality and increases seed size. It does this by helping transfer energy from one part of the plant to another. To absorb phosphorus, most plants require a soil pH of 6.5 to 6.8. Organic matter and the activity of soil organisms also increase the availability of phosphorus. Potassium improves overall vigor of the plant. It helps the plants make carbohydrates and provides disease resistance. It also helps regulate metabolic activities. [图片]There are three additional nutrients that plants need, but in much smaller amounts: Calcium is used by plants in cell membranes, at their growing points and to neutralize toxic materials. In addition, calcium improves soil structure and helps bind organic and inorganic particles together. Magnesium is the only metallic component of chlorophyll. Without it, plants can't process sunlight. Sulfur is a component of many proteins. Finally, there are eight elements that plants need in tiny amounts. These are called micronutrients and include boron, copper and iron. Healthy soil that is high in organic matter usually contains adequate amounts of each of these micronutrients. [图片]Organic vs. Synthetic Do plants really care where they get their nutrients? Yes, because organic and synthetic fertilizers provide nutrients in different ways. Organic fertilizers are made from naturally occurring mineral deposits and organic material, such as bone or plant meal or composted manure. Synthetic fertilizers are made by chemically processing raw materials. In general, the nutrients in organic fertilizers are not water-soluble and are released to the plants slowly over a period of months or even years. For this reason, organic fertilizers are best applied in the fall so the nutrients will be available in the spring. These organic fertilizers stimulate beneficial soil microorganisms and improve the structure of the soil. Soil microbes play an important role in converting organic fertilizers into soluble nutrients that can be absorbed by your plants. In most cases, organic fertilizers and compost will provide all the secondary and micronutrients your plants need. Synthetic fertilizers are water-soluble and can be taken up by the plant almost immediately. In fact applying too much synthetic fertilizer can "burn" foliage and damage your plants. Synthetic fertilizers give plants a quick boost but do little to improve soil texture, stimulate soil life, or improve your soil's long-term fertility. Because synthetic fertilizers are highly water-soluble, they can also leach out into streams and ponds. Synthetic fertilizers do have some advantages in early spring. Because they are water-soluble, they are available to plants even when the soil is still cold and soil microbes are inactive. For this reason, some organically-based fertilizers, such as PHC All-Purpose Fertilizer, also contain small amounts of synthetic fertilizers to ensure the availability of nutrients. For the long-term health of your garden, feeding your plants by building the soil with organic fertilizers and compost is best. This will give you soil that is rich in organic matter and teeming with microbial life. [图片]Foliar Feeding? Plants can absorb nutrients eight to 20 times more efficiently through their leaf surfaces than through their roots. As a result, spraying foliage with liquid nutrients can produce remarkable yields. For best results, spray plants during their critical growth stages such as transplanting time, blooming time and just after fruit sets. [图片]What About pH? Even if proper nutrients are present in the soil, some nutrients cannot be absorbed by plants if the soil pH is too high or too low. For most plants, soil pH should be between 6.0 and 7.0. A soil test will measure the pH of your soil. You can send a sample to a lab (contact your local extension service for a low-cost kit) or buy a home kit and do it yourself. Lime or wood ash can be used to raise pH; sulfur or aluminum sulfate can lower pH. Keep in mind that it's best to raise or lower soil pH slowly over the course of a year or two. Dramatic adjustments can result in the opposite extreme, which may be worse than what you started with. Once again, a helpful solution is to apply compost. Compost moderates soil pH and is one of the best ways to maintain the 6.5 ideal. [图片]How to Choose a Fertilizer In most cases, an all-purpose, 5-5-5 fertilizer will provide the nutrients all plants need for healthy growth. If a soil test reveals certain nutrient deficiencies, or if you want to tailor your fertilizer to the needs of particular plants (tomatoes vs. flowers), you can select a special formulation. What you choose will depend on your soil and what you are growing. The three numbers that you see on a fertilizer label, such as 5-5-5, tell you what proportion of each macronutrient the fertilizer contains. The first number is always nitrogen (N), the second is phosphorus (P) and the third is potassium (K). This "N-P-K" ratio reflects the available nutrients —by weight—contained in that fertilizer. For example, if a 100-pound bag of fertilizer has an N-P-K ratio of 5-7-4, it contains 5 pounds of nitrate, 7 pounds of phosphate (which contains phosphorus), 4 pounds of potash (which contains potassium) and 84 pounds of filler. Note that the N-P-K ratio of organic fertilizers is typically lower than that of a synthetic fertilizer. This is because by law, the ratio can only express nutrients that are immediately available. Most organic fertilizers contain slow-release nutrients that will become available over time. They also contain many trace elements that might not be supplied by synthetic fertilizers. Fertilizers offered by Gardener's Supply are either all-organic, or contain primarily organic materials. To build the long-term health and fertility of your soil, we recommend using granular organic fertilizers. Supplementing with a water-soluble fertilizer ensures that your plants have the nutrients they need when they're in active growth
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Miss Chen
2017年09月24日
Miss Chen
Basidiomicetos (continuación) Ustilaginales Son las cenizas, tizones y carbones; abarcan a varios centenares de especies de hongos, huéspedes de las plantas superiores a los que suelen generar malformaciones. Atacan especialmente a las gramíneas. La infección se presenta en forma de unas masas de esporas con aspecto de hollín o polvo negroque terminan por asfixiar a la planta. Los más conocidos son los que atacan a los cereales, como el carbón del maíz (Ustilago maydis) o del trigo (Ustilago tritici). [图片]Auriculariales Son hongos gelatinosos, saprófitos de la madera, sobre la que se adhieren y concluyen pudriéndola. Destacan las tremelas (Tremella encephala y Tremella mesenterica) y la oreja de judas (Auricularia auricula Judae). Agaricales Se trata de las típicas setas; integra tanto a especies comestibles como venenosas. Son saprófitos sobre suelos o madera; en algunos casos son parásitos o constituyen micorrizas (asociación del hongo con las raíces de plantas superiores). En el caso de las micorrizas, éstas se suelen observar en las coníferas, fagáceas, salicáceas, orquidáceas y ericáceas. Esta asociación puede ser externa (ectótrofa) si se unen íntimamente en la zona superficial de la raíz, o interna (endótrofa), si las hifas de los hongos penetran en el interior de las células. Especies comestibles son las del género denominado boleto (ejemplo del Boletus edulis) y otras de alto valor gastronómico, como el níscalo o rovellón (Lactarius deliciosus), la verdadera oronja o amanita de los césares (Amanita cesarea), la seta de cardo y chopo (Pleurotus eryngii y Pleurotus ostreatus), o el tan conocido champiñón (Psaliota campestris). Pero existen gran cantidad de especies que, si no son venenosas, no gozan de interés alguno en alimentación. [图片]Amanita muscaria (papamoscas) Algunas especies son muy peligrosas por su toxicidad, ejemplo del boleto de Satanás (Boletus satanas); pero otras pueden incluso causar la muerte, como algunas pertenecientes al género Amanita: ejemplo de la vulgarmente llamada matamoscas (Amanita muscaria); la pantera (Amanita pantherina); la oronja o cicuta verde (Amanita phalloides); la oronja o cicuta blanca (Amanita verna); y la cicuta fétida (Amanita virosa). Liquenofitos (líquenes) Muchos autores agrupan a los líquenes independientemente en los denominados Micoficofitos, dado que se trata de un hongo que vive en simbiosis con un alga, formando una unidad morfológica y fisiológica. Gracias a esa simbiosis, ambos pueden ocupar espacios donde no existen condiciones para que puedan sobrevivir independientemente (ausencia de agua, materia orgánica, etc). El alga, que suele ser una cianofícea o clorofícea (géneros Nostoc, Pleurococcus o Trebouxia), está adaptada a bajas intensidades de luz, siendo la encargada de realizar la fotosíntesis. Por su parte, en el hongo (principalmente de ascomicetos), las hifas fúngicas absorben el agua y las sales minerales que cede el alga. Se desarrollan fácilmente sobre rocas o cortezas de los árboles (ejemplo del liquen amarillo de muchos árboles denominado Xanthoria parietina). [图片]Liquen antártico El metabolismo de ambos organismos hongo y alga, producen sustancias que no podrían sintetizar por separado, y que en algunos casos sirven para la producción de antibióticos, o como elementos nutritivos. Los líquenes pueden resistir temperaturas extremas y sustratos inhóspitos, y por esa razón son los primeros en colonizar los desiertos helados; son sin embargo de lento desarrollo en comparación con otros organismos talosos.
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Miss Chen
2017年09月24日
Miss Chen
Ascomicetos Los ascomicetos son el grupo mas numeroso en especies de hongos. A él pertenecen las conocidas levaduras, así como determinadas especies de hongos filamentosos de los que se obtienen los antibióticos. [图片]Se reproducen de forma sexual por ascosporas, denominadas así porque sus micelios desarrollados están formados por hifas dicarióticas ascógenas, es decir, se forman dentro de estructuras llamadas ascas en el extremo de hifas ramificadas. También se pueden reproducir asexualmente, como en el caso del Penicillium y Aspergillus, mediante conidios, consistentes en conjuntos de esporas que se forman por gemación en el extremo de las hifas. Destacan sobre todo el orden Sacaromicetales y Plectascales: Sacaromicetales Las Sacaromicetales integra el grupo más importante, las levaduras. Son capaces de fermentar glúcidos en ausencia de oxígeno para producir alcohol etílico, mientras que en presencia de oxígeno oxidan los azúcares en CO2. Algunos de los más importantes son Sacharomyces minor (levadura del pan); Sacharomyces cerevisiae (levadura de la cerveza); Sacharomyces ellipsoideus (levadura del vino). Plectascales [图片]Penicillum glaucum, típico de los cítricos, como las naranjas y lácteos Los Plectascales agrupan a mohos (saprófitos en general) y algunos parásitos como los géneros Aspergillus y Penicillium, éste último muy conocido por ser el género de donde el Dr. Alexander Fleming extrajo los hongos para la preparación de la penicilina. También se utilizan los penicillium en procesos de maduración de quesos, tales como roquefort, cabrales, camembert, etc. Basidiomicetos Los basidiomicetos son los hongos más evolucionados.A este grupo pertenecen las denominadas setas (orden agaricales), así como los carbones de los cereales, royas, y otros que causan enfermedades en los vegetales. La denominación basidiomicetes se refiere a que poseen unos basidios en el extremo de las hifas, donde se forman las esporas de origen sexual, siendo ésta la forma usual de reproducción, y cuyo ciclo es básicamente igual al de los ascomicetes; la reproducción asexual se da en basidiomecetos menos evolucionados. Se desarrollan de forma variable según se trate de hongos parásitos o saprófitos. Suelen ser saprófitos sobre materias orgánicas o suelos ricos en humus; y parásitos cuando se establecen sobre plantas superiores. Aunque pueden desarrollarse como parásitos de plantas acuáticas, existen muy pocas especies. Los órdenes más destacables de basidiomicetos son: Uredinales, Ustilaginales, Auriculariales y Agaricales. Uredinales Son las royas (llamadas así por el color rojizo de la lesión que producen) agrupan a parásitos de determinados vegetales, a los que pueden causar graves daños. La más conocida es la que se manifiesta en el trigo (Puccinia graminis). [图片]Hojas y tallos gravemente afectados por puccinia graminis
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Miss Chen
2017年09月24日
Miss Chen
Introducción Los hongos son organismos que presentan características intermedias entre los animales y vegetales. Son unicelulares o pluricelulares con estructura de talo. Su nutrición es heterótrofa, es decir, no se nutren realizando la fotosíntesis (carecen de clorofila). Al igual que en los animales, su reserva energética es el glucógeno. Sus células, salvo en los grupos inferiores, no suelen estar desnudas, sino recubiertas por una membrana que suele ser de un polisacárido, la quitina. Estas células se agrupan en talos filamentosos llamados hifas, cuyo conjunto constituye el micelio, que penetra en el sustrato. La reproducción es de tipo vegetal sexual (por conjugación de hifas de sexos opuestos) o asexual (por medio de esporas). Al igual que ocurre con las plantas superiores pueden existir individuos masculinos y femeninos, que morfológicamente pueden ser iguales o no; aunque se pueden dar hifas masculinas y femeninas dentro del mismo cuerpo vegetativo, en lo que se denomina monoecia. También pueden multiplicarse por descomposición del micelio en células aisladas denominadas conidios. [图片]El conjunto de células filamentosas (hifas) constituye el micelio La forma de vida de los hongos es saprófita, parásita o simbiótica. Tienen una gran importancia ecológica, pues actúan como descomponedores junto a las bacterias, por ejemplo descomponiendo la madera o formando asociaciones simbióticas con otros vegetales, e incluso animales como los termes, proporcionándoles determinadas sustancias que no pueden producir por sí mismos. Tienen utilidad en la industria alimentaria y farmacéutica. Los micofitos se clasifican en las clases Oomicetos, Ficomicetos, Ascomicetos, Basidiomicetos y líquenes (algunos autores incluyen los líquenes en una división independiente, al tratarse de la unión simbiótica de un alga y un hongo). Oomicetos Se trata de los denominados mohos de agua, que se encuentran abundantemente en aguas dulces. Son saprófitos y en algún caso parásitos de peces y plantas superiores. Destacan los géneros Plasmopara viticola, conocida como el mildiu de la vid; procede de América de donde llegó a finales del siglo XIX, consiguiendo desarrollarse por Europa en forma de temidas plagas; Phytophtora cambivora, que ataca y mata los árboles produciendo el llamado mal de la tinta del castaño; y el Saprolegnia, que vive como parásito de crustáceos, peces y moluscos. [图片]Plasmopara viticola (mildiu de la vid) Ficomicetos Son mohos u hongos terrestres constituidos por hifas, tanto haploides microscópicas y uninucleadas, como plurinucleadas y ramificadas. Son normalmente acuáticos, saprófitos y/o parásitos, por lo que viven sobre materia animal, vegetal o en descomposición, o parasitando a insectos y plantas. Se multiplican asexualmente por esporas flageladas, y sexualmente tras la conjugación de hifas de sexualidad opuesta, que dan como resultado la formación de zigosporas. Algunos grupos presentan alternancia de generaciones. Destaca el orden Tigomicetales que se encuentra adaptado a la vida terrestre, en el que se incluye a los Mucorales, conocidos por crecer sobre compotas, mermeladas, frutos, etc.; y también por el moho blanco del pan (Mucor mucedo) y moho negro (Rhizopus stolonifer).
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Miss Chen
2017年09月24日
Miss Chen
Feofíceas Son las llamadas algas pardas. Todas ellas son marinas (raramente se encuentran en aguas dulces) de aguas frías y poco profundas de la zona intermareal. No presentan formas unicelulares; son filamentosas, laminares o foliares. Excepcionalmente son bentónicas, como las de los sargazos. Pueden desarrollar una gran envergadura, diferenciando órganos externos asimilados a hojas (filoides o frondes), tallos (estípite o cauloide) y raíces (rizoides). Suelen concentrarse en grandes masas que pueden quedar al aire cuando bajan las mareas. El color pardo se debe a un pigmento denominado carotenoide ficoxantina, que se encuentra presente en sus cromoplastos, el cual apaga o enmascara el color verde de la clorofila (clorofilas a y c); dando lugar a gamas de colores marrones, verdes oliva, negro, etc. El almidón de reserva, del que carecen, está sustituido por un polisacárido llamado laminarina. Crecen a partir de células apicales, al igual que ocurre en las cormofitas; la mayoría presentan clara alternancia de generaciones. Muchos de las clases (u órdenes) de feofítos son los principales representantes vegetales en los mares fríos. Destacan las clases Laminariales, con especies que pueden alcanzar más de 100 metros de longitud (como las de los géneros Macrocystis y Nereocystis), y que poseen vesículas que le permiten flotar (típicas en aguas del Océano Pacífico); y Fucales, a las que pertenecen los fucos y sargazos, propios de aguas cálidas, en las que suelen frotar libremente; pueden formar verdaderas praderas verdes sobre la superficie marina, ejemplo del mar de los Sargazos. [图片]Muchas especies de algas pardas tienen interés comercial para la producción de yodo y otras sustancias, ejemplo de diversas especies de laminarias y fucos, de las que se extrae el ácido algínico y los alginatos derivados, de aplicación en farmacia, perfumería, cosmética y conservas, así como en la fabricación de determinados materiales aislantes, resinas, papel, fotografía, etc. También son apreciadas como alimento, ejemplo de la Alaria esculenta en Escocia e Irlanda, así como otras muchas en el suereste Asiático y Japón; como harinas de forraje para componer piensos avícolas y como fertilizantes para enriquecer en nitrógeno la mezcla de los estiércoles. Rodofíceas Las rodofitas son las llamadas algas rojas. Constituyen el grupo morfológicamente más desarrollado y complicado estructuralmente, aunque algo menos evolucionado que las feofíceas. Son las algas que alcanzan mayor profundidad marina, preferentemente cálidos o templados, que pueden llegar a los 130 metros en el Mediterráneo, y no más de 30 metros en aguas más turbias del Atlántico. En general viven libres o fijos a rocas y moluscos, y más raramente como parásitos. El carbonato cálcico que se acumula en los talos de las algas coralinas (especies de mares tropicales), da lugar a la formación de arrecifes coralinos. [图片]Las algas rojas son las que viven a mayor profundidad, libres o asidas a rocas o moluscos. En la imagen una alga roja del género scinaia Existen algunos representantes de estas algas que son unicelulares, pero en general son pluricelulares, filamentosas ramificadas y diferenciadas por un pie que está constituido por un disco basal que se une al sustrato, así como un filamento erecto. Tienen un color que varía entre el rosa y violeta, pasando por rojos intensos. El rojo es recibido de la ficoeritrina, consistente en un pigmento rojo que presenta en los rodoplastos, el cual apaga o enmascara el color verde de la clorofila a. También poseen ficocianina (azulado). La fotosíntesis forma en ellas un polisacárido especial, almidón de las florideas. Destacan los géneros Scinaia, Chondrus, Corallina, Gelidium, Lomentaria, Gracillaria y Delesseria. Algunas de ellas son utilizadas en el sureste Asiático, Japón e islas del Pacífico como alimento humano. [图片]Alga roja bentónica del género gelidium Industrialmente se utilizan los géneros Gelidium, Gracillaria y Gigartina, para la obtención del agar y el carrageno, consistentes en polisacáridos similares a la gelatina, soluble sólo en agua caliente a más de 35º C. Estos productos sirven además como complementos en la fabricación de mermeladas, jarabes, cremas, mayonesas, etc., con objeto de potenciar la cremosidad del alimento. También se utilizan en la industria de cosmética y farmacéutica, para la fabricación de jabones, lociones, cremas, pastas dentífricas, o simplemente como excipiente.
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Dummer. ゛☀
2017年09月24日
Dummer. ゛☀
Special techniques bring showy flowers into bloom GROWING bulbs indoors lets you enjoy the colors and fragrance of spring when it's still months away. The key to success with indoor bulbs is to plan ahead. Many people don't realize that there are two types of bulbs for indoor growing: those you need to chill and those you don't. Here's how to tell the difference. [图片]Bulbs That Don't Need Chilling These bulbs are native to warm climates, so they don't require a cooling period to trigger blooms. Amaryllis and paperwhite narcissus both belong in this category. You can grow these bulbs in a pot filled with soil, or just place them in a shallow bowl and use pebbles to hold the bulbs in place. Add water, and they'll usually bloom just four weeks after "planting". To help keep stems short and sturdy, start them out with indirect light and temperatures of about 50 degrees F. for the first two weeks, then warmer, brighter conditions after that. If you're growing your bulbs in a bowl with pebbles or marbles, the water should cover no more than the bottom quarter to third of the bulb. Amaryllis are available in many interesting colors and forms: There are bright reds, as well as white, pink and peach. For more information, read Amaryllis Care. Paperwhites offer delicate beauty and an intense fragrance. Buy a couple dozen paperwhite bulbs and store them in a cool, dry place. Start some every few weeks for blooms right through February. [图片]Bulbs That Need Chilling All other spring bulbs require a chilling period before they'll bloom. This includes tulips, daffodils, hyacinths, crocus, Dutch iris and scilla. Cool temperatures stimulate a biochemical response inside the bulb that "turns on" the embryonic flower so it starts developing. Most bulbs require 16 to 18 weeks of cold before the flower is fully formed. At that point they're ready for light and warmth. If you cut the cooling time short, the flowers may emerge but they will probably be stunted and deformed. For indoor blooms, the easiest bulbs are crocus, hyacinths, muscari, and mini-daffodils. Tulips and standard daffodils can also be forced, but they require more careful attention. Bulbs look best in a shallow, wide pot that's 4" to 6" deep. There should be at least 2" below the bulbs for root growth. The very top of the bulbs can be even with the pot rim. Use a standard potting mix (2/3 soilless mix, 1/3 compost/soil). Potted bulbs also look best when they're crowded, so snuggle the bulbs together about 1/2-inch apart. It's also good to stick with one variety of bulb per pot, because cooling and bloom times vary. Water thoroughly after planting, and label each of your pots with variety name and planting date. Otherwise, you won't remember what's what when they are coming into bloom. Finding the right place to chill your bulbs is usually the biggest challenge. Once planted, the bulbs need to be kept at 35 to 45 degrees F. for the entire cooling period of 16 to 18 weeks. If you live where outdoor winter temperatures rarely get below 25 degrees F, just keep the pots of bulbs moist and store them right in the garden beneath a layer of straw. If your winter temperatures are colder than that, the potted bulbs can be stored in an unheated basement, a ventilated crawlspace, or a cold frame. Check the information at right for specifics about how long to chill your bulbs. Generally, if you want to have flowers blooming in January, you should plant your bulbs in September or early October. For February flowers, plant mid-October. For March blooms, plant in late October or early November. Keep the soil moist, but not wet for the entire chilling period. And keep the bulbs in the dark or they may start growing before they're fully chilled. [图片]Time for Spring! Once you remove your bulbs from cold storage, allow three or four weeks to bloom time. Wake the bulbs gradually, starting with about two weeks of indirect sunlight and 60 degree temperatures. When shoots are three to five inches high, move the pots to a 68-degree environment and a bright, sunny window. Once buds color, move the pot to indirect light again to prolong bloom. After blooming, most people discard potted bulbs. If you find that impossible, keep watering the pots and start adding some fertilizer. When the foliage yellows (usually after a month or two), you can remove the bulbs and plant them outdoors. Just remember, it may be several years before the bulbs build up enough reserves to bloom again. Paperwhites and other tropical narcissus will not rebloom.
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Miss Chen
2017年09月24日
Miss Chen
Clorofíceas (continuación) Ulotricales Las Ulotricales más simples están representadas por filamentos simples o ramificado, incluso laminares. Destacan las algas comestibles conocidas como lechugas de mar, del género Ulva, cuyo talo laminar puede llegar al metro de longitud; otras muchas algas filamentosas que podemos encontrar en fuentes y estanques, pertenecen al género Ulothrix. [图片]Alga del género ulva (lechuga de mar) Conjugales Las Conjugales son organismos haploides que se producen por la germinación de un cigoto perdurante que sufre meiosis. Se trata de algas de agua dulce, unicelulares, filamentosas o constituidos por filamentos sin ramificar y sin fijación al sustrato. Las filamentosas pueden encontrarse en aguas estancadas formando masas denominadas ovas o babas. Destacan el género Spirogyra, con sus cloroplastos muy patentes en forma de zig-zag en número de dos a doce; el Zygnema, con dos cloroplastos en forma de estrella; y el Mongeotia, que presenta uno en forma de barril. [图片]Alga spirogyra al microscopio, donde se puede observar su típica disposición de filamentos en zig-zag Sifonales Las Sifonales son organismos de agua salada de hasta medio metro de longitud, que presentan una sola célula denominada cenocito (en forma de tubo), pero que contiene numerosos núcleos y cloroplastos. Algunas de ellas son comestibles. El género Caulerpa posee raíces ficticias o rizoides cuya única misión es la fijación, así como unas extensión filoides (en forma de hoja); el Codium bursa presenta talos huecos y esféricos, o con cilindros ramificados. [图片]Alga del género caulerpa Clorococales Las Clorococales son organismos unicelulares o coloniales pero ausentes de flagelos; se cultivan para la alimentación y como materia prima para extraer determinadas vitaminas, tales como la K o la C, así como grasas y esteroles. Las más conocidas son las clorelas (zooclorelas si viven en el interior de animales acuáticos); el color verde de la hidra de los estanques está causado por este organismo. Sifonocladales Las Sifonocladales como la acetabularia, son unicelulares al principio y más tarde cenocítica. Alcanza hasta los 15 cm. de altura en forma de margarita. Contribuye a la formación de depósitos calizos marinos al quedar sus talos recubiertos de sales calcáreas. [图片]Algas acetabularia Carales o Carofíceas Las carales o Carofíceas, son algas bentónicas de aguas dulces, que se las confunde con plantas fanerógamas acuáticas por la forma del talo parecido a un equiseto. Se trata de organismos haploides. Son muy frágiles cuando se secan debido a la cal que impregna sus talos. Algunas especies son fétidas, como la Chara foetida, que pueden transferir a aquellos peces que se alimentan de ellas.
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